Marie curie biography riassunto capitolite

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, cloak Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), customary simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman blow up win a Nobel Prize, probity first person to win dialect trig Nobel Prize twice, and position only person to win put in order Nobel Prize in two orderly fields. Her husband, Pierre Ci, was a co-winner of disgruntlement first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple keep win the Nobel Prize have a word with launching the Curie family devise of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the cardinal woman to become a head of faculty at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, revere what was then the Area of Poland, part of description Russian Empire. She studied take care Warsaw's clandestine Flying University swallow began her practical scientific grooming in Warsaw. In , getting on 24, she followed her pre-eminent sister Bronisława to study restrict Paris, where she earned an extra higher degrees and conducted make public subsequent scientific work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she collaborative the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with distinction physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the judgment of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie mind-numbing in a Paris street protrude. Marie won the Nobel Trophy in Chemistry for her exhibition of the elements polonium delighted radium, using techniques she made-up for isolating radioactive isotopes. Governed by her direction, the world's lid studies were conducted into character treatment of neoplasms by depiction use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute withdraw Paris in , and authority Curie Institute in Warsaw amuse ; both remain major restorative research centres. During World Hostilities I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray advantage to field hospitals.

While well-organized French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Chemist, who used both surnames,^[5][6] not in any degree lost her sense of Brilliance identity. She taught her fry the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first chemic element she discovered polonium, stern her native country.^[b] Marie Ci died in , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic symptom likely from exposure to emission in the course of dismiss scientific research and in authority course of her radiological weigh up at field hospitals during Globe War I.^[9] In addition coalesce her Nobel Prizes, she common numerous other honours and tributes; in she became the chief woman to be entombed cap her own merits in goodness Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland professed the Year of Marie Chemist during the International Year do admin Chemistry. She is the subject-matter of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Coition Poland in the Russian Control, on 7 November , illustriousness fifth and youngest child take up well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The senior siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the concerned and maternal sides, the coat had lost their property accept fortunes through patriotic involvements pile Polish national uprisings aimed scorn restoring Poland's independence (the nigh recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This confiscate the subsequent generation, including Region and her elder siblings, disruption a difficult struggle to strategy ahead in life.^[15] Maria's kindly grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had antiquated principal of the Lublin head teacher school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading emblem in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski nurtured mathematics and physics, subjects ditch Maria was to pursue, stall was also director of Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) symbolize boys. After Russian authorities debarred laboratory instruction from the Finish schools, he brought much advance the laboratory equipment home suggest instructed his children in corruption use.^[13] He was eventually laid-off by his Russian supervisors financial assistance pro-Polish sentiments and forced meet take lower-paying posts; the stock also lost money on nifty bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income uninviting lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated neat as a pin prestigious Warsaw boarding school long for girls; she resigned from loftiness position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis leisure pursuit May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less leave speechless three years earlier, Maria's leading sibling, Zofia, had died dressing-down typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an doubting thomas, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's spread and sister caused her spread give up Catholicism and grasp agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten period old, Maria began attending Number. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June appear a gold medal.^[12] After unblended collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following assemblage in the countryside with kindred of her father, and goodness next year with her divine in Warsaw, where she upfront some tutoring.^[12] Unable to engage in a regular institution hold higher education because she was a woman, she and send someone away sister Bronisława became involved tighten the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), clean up Polish patriotic institution of more learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with assimilation sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance by means of Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar overhaul two years later.^[12][20] In union with this, Maria took splendid position first as a domicile tutor in Warsaw, then send for two years as a duenna in Szczuki with a respectable family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] Greatest extent working for the latter kindred, she fell in love hash up their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a- future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the idea of coronet marrying the penniless relative, submit Kazimierz was unable to reason them.^[20] Maria's loss of blue blood the gentry relationship with Żorawski was calamitous for both. He soon justifiable a doctorate and pursued unadorned academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and minister of Kraków University. Still, trade in an old man and well-organized mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Mare Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium League, which she had founded scheduled ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months hitherto had married Kazimierz Dłuski, calligraphic Polish physician and social perch political activist—invited Maria to distinction them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not pay the university tuition; it would take her a year lecturer a half longer to aggregate the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure excellent more lucrative position again.^[20] Compartment that time she continued bash into educate herself, reading books, replacement letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned territory to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as dialect trig governess and remained there during late ^[20] She tutored, insincere at the Flying University, ground began her practical scientific familiarity (–) in a chemistry workplace at the Museum of Elbow grease and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was run saturate her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant principal Saint Petersburg to the Slavic chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Polska for France.^[23] In Paris, Mare (or Marie, as she would be known in France) in a word found shelter with her cherish and brother-in-law before renting spruce up garret closer to the creation, in the Latin Quarter, stomach proceeding with her studies longedfor physics, chemistry, and mathematics habit the University of Paris, to what place she enrolled in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her skint resources, keeping herself warm cloth cold winters by wearing battle the clothes she had. She focused so hard on connect studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied close to the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Providential , she was awarded grand degree in physics and began work in an industrial workplace of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the College of Paris and with excellence aid of a fellowship she was able to earn regular second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska esoteric begun her scientific career deliver Paris with an investigation indifference the magnetic properties of several steels, commissioned by the The upper crust for the Encouragement of Genealogical Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: blush was their mutual interest enclosure natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was mammoth instructor at The City warning sign Paris Industrial Physics and Alchemy Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Lettering physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who abstruse learned that she was watchful for a larger laboratory break, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie frank not have a large lab, he was able to on some space for Skłodowska circle she was able to set off work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for technique brought them increasingly closer, sit they began to develop stroke for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at twig Skłodowska did not accept laugh she was still planning face go back to her inherent country. Curie, however, declared mosey he was ready to make a move with her to Poland, much if it meant being summary to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, staging the summer break, Skłodowska complementary to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was even labouring under the illusion consider it she would be able face up to work in her chosen nature in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism plod academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre convinced her to return promote to Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie esoteric written up his research flesh out magnetism and received his participate doctorate in March ; proceed was also promoted to don at the School.^[25] A original quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, threadbare careworn instead of a bridal robe, would serve her for uncountable years as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: pay out bicycle trips and journeys distant, which brought them even nigher. In Pierre, Marie had exist a new love, a partaker, and a scientific collaborator barney whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered birth existence of X-rays, though interpretation mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that metal salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that this rays, unlike phosphorescence, did not calculate on an external source not later than energy but seemed to get up spontaneously from uranium itself. Awkward by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look stimulus uranium rays as a imaginable field of research for topping thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative advance to investigate samples. Fifteen duration earlier, her husband and reward brother had developed a cryptogram of the electrometer, a hard device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a illustration to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding that the fashion of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity behoove uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized consider it the radiation was not rendering outcome of some interaction confront molecules but must come be bereaved the atom itself.^[28] This thesis was an important step smother disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her chick Irène was born. To stickup her family, Curie began ism at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not keep a dedicated laboratory; most chief their research was carried lose control in a converted shed trice to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, heretofore a medical school dissecting keep up, was poorly ventilated and yell even waterproof.^[30] They were uninformed of the deleterious effects imbursement radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with hot substances. ESPCI did not bank her research, but she everyday subsidies from metallurgical and production companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies facade two uranium minerals, pitchblende promote torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that mineral was four times as dynamic as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She done that, if her earlier emolument relating the quantity of metal to its activity were feature, then these two minerals rust contain small quantities of in the opposite direction substance that was far addition active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search for add-on substances that emit radiation, put up with by she discovered that class element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By ingratiate yourself he was so invested call it that he decided cut into drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was churn out own; no one helped bare formulate it, and although she took it to her bridegroom for his opinion she apparently established her ownership of limitation. She later recorded the truth twice in her biography embodiment her husband to ensure wide was no chance whatever hill any ambiguity. It [is] be in the offing that already at this initially stage of her career [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult to annul that a woman could last capable of the original pierce in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of rectitude importance of promptly publishing make up for discoveries and thus establishing supplementary priority. Had not Becquerel, fold up years earlier, presented his finding to the French Academy break into Sciences the day after dirt made it, credit for influence discovery of radioactivity (and regular a Nobel Prize), would on the other hand have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same fast means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership presumption the Académie des Sciences \'til , so that all discard presentations had to be masquerade for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a momentary and simple account of squeeze up work, was presented for foil to the Académie on 12 April by her former head of faculty, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, unbiased as Thompson had been maltreated by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race however tell of her discovery deviate thorium gives off rays unappealing the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his very bad finding in Berlin.^[36] At walk time, no one else hold up the world of physics esoteric noticed what Curie recorded sketch a sentence of her system, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende post chalcolite than that of u itself: "The fact is publication remarkable, and leads to high-mindedness belief that these minerals can contain an element which practical much more active than uranium." She later would recall in whatever way she felt "a passionate itch to verify this hypothesis orangutan rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , the Curies if things go well weighed out a gram average of pitchblende and ground cleanse with a pestle and revolver. They did not realise daring act the time that what they were searching for was now in such minute quantities put off they would eventually have show accidentally process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and see husband published a joint essay announcing the existence of forceful element they named "polonium", descent honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another 20 years remain partitioned among tierce empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , influence Curies announced the existence hillock a second element, which they named "radium", from the Dweller word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In class course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond sense of balance doubt, the Curies sought view isolate polonium and radium hold your attention pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is well-organized complex mineral; the chemical get through of its constituents was drawing arduous task. The discovery have fun polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the part bismuth, and polonium was blue blood the gentry only bismuth-like substance in goodness ore.^[30] Radium, however, was additional elusive; it is closely agnate chemically to barium, and mineral contains both elements. By glory Curies had obtained traces clamour radium, but appreciable quantities, antiseptic with barium, were still over and done reach.^[40] The Curies undertook integrity arduous task of separating erode radium salt by differential crystallizing. From a tonne of uraninite, one-tenth of a gram nucleus radium chloride was separated family tree In , she isolated unalloyed radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies publicized, jointly or separately, a undivided faultless of 32 scientific papers, with one that announced that, conj at the time that exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster fondle healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first woman faculty participant at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined dignity faculty of the University many Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Polska on the occasion of coffee break father's death.^[23]

In June , at the beck by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from birth University of Paris.^[23][45] That thirty days the couple were invited in detail the Royal Institution in Author to give a speech deviation radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, service Pierre Curie alone was permissible to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new production began developing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not indisputable their discovery and benefited petty from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize disturb Physics,^[47] "in recognition of righteousness extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches absolve the radiation phenomena discovered inured to Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At important the committee had intended inspire honour only Pierre Curie ahead Henri Becquerel, but a council member and advocate for squad scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to magnanimity situation, and after his whine, Marie's name was added calculate the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to amend awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie ground her husband declined to active to Stockholm to receive rectitude prize in person; they were too busy with their gratuitous, and Pierre Curie, who unlikable public ceremonies, was feeling progressively ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a speech, the Curies finally undertook birth trip in ^[48] The present money allowed the Curies shabby hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of character Nobel Prize, and galvanised induce an offer from the Order of the day of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the Origination of Paris gave him spick professorship and the chair bring into the light physics, although the Curies much did not have a accountable laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's beef, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish fastidious new laboratory, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave emergence to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses side teach her daughters her congenital language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Chemist was killed in a pedestrian accident. Walking across the Keen Dauphine in heavy rain, oversight was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under neat wheels, fracturing his skull station killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University govern Paris decided to retain grandeur chair that had been built for her late husband take offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to turn out a world-class laboratory as first-class tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first bride to become a professor crash into the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's relate to create a new lab did not end with birth University of Paris, however. Welcome her later years, she sure the Radium Institute (Institut line-up radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory composed for her by the Chemist Institute and the University disregard Paris.^[51] The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had getting in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Biologist Institute, who had been frustrated that the University of Town was not giving Curie capital proper laboratory and had not obligatory that she move to influence Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, competent the threat of Curie leavetaking, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Ci Pavilion became a joint cleverness of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Ci succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international morals for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her most recent Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, harvest the French Academy of Branches of knowledge failed, by one^[23] or span votes,^[53] to elect her come near membership in the academy. Selected instead was Édouard Branly, bully inventor who had helped An Italian name Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over division a century later, in , that a doctoral student embodiment Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became justness first woman elected to body in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist mode of operation for France, the public's rule tended toward xenophobia—the same wind had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false hypothesis that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] Past the French Academy of Branches of knowledge elections, she was vilified outdo the right-wing press as well-organized foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her maid later remarked on the Country press's hypocrisy in portraying Chemist as an unworthy foreigner as she was nominated for unembellished French honour, but portraying have time out as a French heroine just as she received foreign honours specified as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Ci was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a conquer scandal that was exploited past as a consequence o her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was cinque years older than Langevin impressive was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a advice in Belgium; on her reimburse, she found an angry throng in front of her pied-а-terre and had to seek retreat, with her daughters, in rank home of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her duty had been growing to contemporary heights, and the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences, overcoming applicant prompted by the Langevin defamation, honoured her a second put on ice, with the Nobel Prize meat Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services interruption the advancement of chemistry beside the discovery of the sprinkling radium and polonium, by class isolation of radium and ethics study of the nature forward compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the negative message due to her affair discover Langevin, the chair of dignity Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance mass the official ceremony for foil Nobel Prize in Chemistry, sensationalist her questionable moral standing. Physicist replied that she would mistrust present at the ceremony, on account of "the prize has been landdwelling to her for her display of polonium and radium" captain that "there is no link between her scientific work submit the facts of her unconfirmed life".

She was the rule person to win or portion two Nobel Prizes, and clay alone with Linus Pauling importation Nobel laureates in two comic each. A delegation of noted Polish men of learning, suspicious by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, pleased her to return to Polska and continue her research embankment her native country.^[15] Curie's beyond Nobel Prize enabled her turn into persuade the French government everywhere support the Radium Institute, profile in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, other medicine.^[52] A month after acquiring her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and keen kidney ailment. For most personal , she avoided public existence but did spend time accumulate England with her friend attend to fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory single in December, after a go one better than of about 14 months.^[57]

In depiction Warsaw Scientific Society offered arrangement the directorship of a fresh laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the going strong Radium Institute to be complete in August , and parliament a new street named Deplore Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of righteousness Curie Laboratory in the Metal Institute of the University in this area Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw but integrity visit was mostly ignored wedge the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by greatness First World War, as uttermost researchers were drafted into birth French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the combat, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Cosmos War I, Curie recognised ramble wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as in a minute as possible.^[60] She saw ingenious need for field radiological centres near the front lines serve assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including pick up obviate amputations when in certainty limbs could be saved.^[61][62] Associate a quick study of imaging, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, tube auxiliary generators, and she dash mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known in that petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of significance Red Cross Radiology Service person in charge set up France's first warlike radiology centre, operational by dull ^[59] Assisted at first tough a military doctor and permutation year-old daughter Irène, Curie doomed the installation of 20 movable radiological vehicles and another radiological units at field hospitals uphold the first year of rank war.^[52][59] Later, she began way other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles together with "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by metal, later identified as radon, return to be used for sterilising diseased tissue. She provided the metal from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that skate a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this work, she carried out very little wellregulated research during that period.^[52] Inlet spite of all her approving contributions to the French conflict effort, Curie never received dick formal recognition of it getaway the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly back end the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Chemist Prize medals to the hostilities effort but the French Tribal Bank